【明報專訊】Does any country rule the frozen place of Antarctica? The answer is none. The continent, which does not have a single blade of anything green, is a de facto (實際上的) condominium (共管領土) governed by a number of treaties including the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (《關於環境保護的南極條約議定書》), which was signed yesterday in 1991.

Basic facts of Antarctica

Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent on earth (after Asia, Africa, North America, and South America) as well as the only continent that does not have a permanent population. It is also the coldest continent, and has the world's lowest recorded temperature, -89.2℃, measured in 1983.

Antarctica has no government and is considered politically neutral. Several countries, including the United Kingdom, France, Norway, Argentina, Australia, New Zealand and Chile, claim sovereignty (主權) in certain regions of it. The validity of these claims is not recognised universally, though a few of these countries have mutually recognised each other's claims.

Antarctica is home to a few vertebrates (脊椎動物), and the Emperor Penguin (皇帝企鵝) is one of them. This species of penguin is famous for laying eggs in the cold and walking many miles to get food. Furthermore, about 1,150 species of fungi (菌類植物) have been recorded from Antarctica.

The Antarctic Treaty System

The Antarctic Treaty System (ATS, 南極條約體系) includes the Antarctic Treaty (《南極條約》) and such related agreements as the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty.

The Antarctic Treaty entered into force in 1961 and has 52 parties as of 2015. It sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, establishes freedom of scientific investigation and bans military activity on that continent. The treaty also prohibits new sovereignty claims over Antarctica. (Article 4 of it says no new claim, or enlargement of an existing claim, to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica shall be asserted while the present Treaty is in force). Furthermore, it dictates that freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue (Article 2), prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes (Article 5), and stipulates that treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment (Article 7).

The Antarctic-Environmental Protocol

The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, also known as the Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, or the Madrid Protocol, was signed in Madrid on 4 October 1991 and entered into force in 1998.

The Protocol provides for the comprehensive protection of the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosystems. It designates Antarctica as a "natural reserve, devoted to peace and science" (Article 2). Article 3 sets forth the basic principles applicable to human activities in Antarctica and Article 7 prohibits all activities relating to Antarctic mineral resources, except for scientific research. Article 8 requires environmental assessment for all activities, including tourism. Article 11 creates a Committee for Environmental Protection for the continent. Article 15 urges member states to be prepared for emergency response actions in the area. Articles 18 to 20 arrange for arbitration (仲裁) of international disputes regarding Antarctica.